Ultras

Ultras are a type of sports fans renowned for their fanatical support and elaborate displays. They are predominantly European followers offootball teams. The behavioral tendency of ultras groups includes the use of flares (primarily in tifo choreography), vocal support in large groups and the displaying of banners at football stadiums, all of which are designed to create an atmosphere which encourages their own team and intimidates opposing players and supporters.

The actions of ultras groups can occasionally be overly extreme and are sometimes influenced by political ideologies or views on racism,^[1] in some instances to the point where the central ideology of the ultras phenomenon, passionate and loyal support of your team, becomes a sideshow.^[2] In recent decades, the culture has become a focal point for the movement against the commercialization of sports and football in particular.^[3]

History

The origin of the ultras movement is disputed,^[4] with many supporters groups from various countries making claims solely on the basis of their dates of foundation. The level of dispute and confusion is aided by a contemporary tendency (mainly in Europe) to categorize all groups of overtly fanatical supporters as ultras. Supporters groups of a nature comparable to the ultras have been present in Brazil since 1939, when the first torcida organizada was formed. Inspired by the torcidas and the colorful scenes of the 1950 World Cup, supporters of Hajduk Splitformed Torcida Split on 28 October 1950.^[5] The group is often cited as the oldest ultras/torcida style group in Europe.

The country most associated with the ultras movement is Italy.^[4][6] The first Italian ultras groups were formed in 1951, including the Fedelissimi Granata of Torino. The 1960s saw the continuing spread and development of the culture with the formation of the Fossa dei Leoniand Boys San groups, the former often regarded in Italy as the first full-fledged ultras group. The term Ultras was used as a name for the first time in 1969 when supporters of Sampdoria formed the Ultras Tito Cucchiaroni and fans of Torino formed the Ultras Granata. The style of support that would become synonymous with Italian football developed most during the 1970s as more groups formed and the active support of the ultras became more apparent, in contrast with the "traditional" culture. Choreographic displays, signature banners and symbols, giant flags, drums and fireworks became the norm as groups aimed to take their support to higher levels.^[7] The decade also saw the violence and unrest of Italian society at the time overlap with the ultras movement, adding a dimension that has plagued it ever since.^[8]

The ultras movement spread across Europe during the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, starting with the countries geographically closest to Italy.^[9]The effects on the footballing cultures of the countries involved were more profound in some and less in others, as a certain level of organization amongst fans and/or a tradition of colorful support would have long been present in many countries. Germany, Belgium and theNetherlands, three countries whose footballing cultures were more influenced by British football in the past, experienced significant change.English football is a rare example of a footballing culture in Europe which hasn't been heavily influenced by the ultras movement

Characteristics

Ultras groups are usually based around a core group of founders or leaders (who tend to hold executive control),^[10] with smaller subgroups organized by location, friendship or political stance. Ultras tend to use various styles and sizes of banners and flags bearing the name and symbols of their group.^[10][11]Some ultras groups sell their own merchandise to raise funds for performing displays.^[10][12] An ultras group can number from a handful of fans to hundreds or thousands, with larger groups often claiming entire sections of a stadium for themselves. Ultras groups often have a representative who liaises with the club owners on a regular basis, mostly regarding tickets, seat allocations and storage facilities.^[10] Some clubs provide groups with cheaper tickets, storage rooms for flags and banners and early access to the stadium before matches in order to prepare displays. These types of favored relationships are often criticized when ultras groups abuse their power.

Casual subculture

The casual subculture is a subsection of association football culture that is typified by football hooliganism and the wearing of expensive European designer clothing.^{[1][2][3][4][5]} The subculture originated in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s when many hooligans started wearing designer labels and expensive sportswear in order to avoid the attention of police. They did not wear club colours, so it was easier to infiltrate rival groups and to enter pubs.

Music genres popular among casuals in the late 1970s included: mod revival, postpunk, Oi! and ska.^{[6][unreliable source][dead link]} By the 1980s, casuals' music tastes were eclectic, with some enjoying pop groups such as Wham!, ABC, The Human League, Spandau Ballet andAdam and the Ants.^{[7][unreliable source][dead link]} In the late 1980s and early 1990s, many casuals were part of the Madchester and ravescenes, and in the 1990s, many were fans of Britpop.^{[6][unreliable source][dead link]} There was a strong crossover with rave culture, with many ravers wearing football casual brands but distanced from football hooliganism.^{[7][unreliable source][dead link][8][9]} Madchester bands sometimes wore casual clothing on stage and in publicity photographs, as did Britpop acts such as Blur in their video for "Parklife". Since then, the most popular genre among casuals has been indie rock.^{[6][dead link]}

The art video Fiorucci Made Me Hardcore by Turner Prize-winning artist Mark Leckey documents casuals in the context of other British subcultures.

History

British football support has had a strong fashion-led subculture element since the rise of the Teddy Boys in the mid 1950s. This continued with the mods of the early 1960s, the skinheads of the late 1960s (and later), and the mod revivalists of the late 1970s.

The casual subculture began in the late 1970s after Liverpool F.C.and Everton F.C. fans introduced the rest of England to European fashions that they acquired while following Liverpool at their 1977 European Cup quarter final against the French side St Etienne. These Liverpool fans arrived back in England with expensive Italian and French designer sportswear, most of which they looted from stores. The fans brought back many unique clothing brands that had not been seen in the country before. Soon other fans were clamouring for these rare items of clothing, such as Lacoste or Sergio Tacchini shirts, and unusual Adidas trainers, which are still associated with Liverpool supporters today. At the time, many police forces were still on the lookout for skinhead fans wearing Dr. Martens boots, and paid no attention to fans in expensive designer clothing.

In the 1980s, other clothing labels that became associated with casuals included: Pringle, Burberry, Fila, Stone Island, Fiorucci, Pepe,Benetton, Ralph Lauren, Henri Lloyd, Lyle & Scott, Ben Sherman, Fred Perry, Kappa and Slazenger. Fashion trends frequently changed, and the casual subculture reached its peak in the late 1980s. With the arrival of the acid house, rave and Madchester scenes, the violence of the casual subculture faded.

1990s and 2000s

In the mid-1990s, the casual subculture experienced a revival, but emphasis on style had changed slightly. Many football fans adopted the casual look as a kind of uniform, identifying them as different from the ordinary club supporters. Popular clothing brands included Stone Island, Aquascutum, Burberry, Lacoste, Prada, Façonnable, Hugo Boss, Maharishi, Mandarina Duck and Dupe. In the late 1990s, many football supporters began to move away from the brands that were considered the casual uniform, because of the police attention that these brands attracted. Several designer labels also withdrew certain designs from sale after they became associated with casuals.

Casual fashion experienced an increase in popularity in the 2000s, with British music acts such as The Streets and The Mitchell Brotherssporting casual outfits in their music videos. Casual culture has been highlighted by films and television programmes such as ID, The Firm,The Football Factory and Green Street. Although some casuals have continued to wear Stone Island clothing in the 2000s, many have detached the compass badge so as to be less obvious. However, with the two buttons still attached, those in the know are still able to recognise the clothing items. Other clothing labels associated with casuals in the 2000s have included: Adidas Originals, Lyle & Scott, Fred Perry, Armani, Lambretta, Lacoste, Nudie Jeans, Edwin and Superga. Many casuals have adopted a more subtle and underground look, avoiding more mainstream clothing brands for independent clothing labels.

Casuals United, also known as UK Casuals United,^[10] is a British anti-Islamic protest group that formed in 2009.^[11] It is closely affiliated with the English Defence League,^[12] a far right^{[13][14][15][16][17]} street protest movement which opposes what it sees as the spread ofIslamism, Sharia law and Islamic extremism in England.^[18][19]

ASPECTS OF HOOLIGAN VIOLENCE

                            A Reappraisal of Sociological Research  into Football Hooliganism
                                                                         ABSTRACT:
Systematic and detailed comparative  research into hooligan identities constitutes a vital new
approach to the study of football hooliganism. Despite the ongoing globalization of football
culture  and  societies at large, there  remain  important  national and  local  variations in the
manifestation of football hooliganism worldwide. These  dissimilarities thwart efforts to
conceptualize and  explain  football hooliganism as a  homogeneous phenomenon and, more
specifically, seriously limit the applicability of dominant sociological theories on the subject.
It  is argued  in this essay that comparative  research into football hooliganism should  move
beyond  general explanations in  terms of societal fault lines and  towards a  more  detailed
analysis of hooligan identities and  social interactions between hooligans and significant
others. Although emphasizing the  great practical  heterogeneity of football hooliganism, the
author suggests that a number of universal aspects can be identified. On the basis of long­term
fieldwork  among  hooligan formations, the  author distinguishes six  key aspects of football
hooliganism as a transnational phenomenon:  excitement and  pleasurable  emotional arousal;
the  construction of hard  masculine  identity; territorial identifications; the  individual and
collective  management of reputation; solidarity and  belonging; and  sovereignty and
autonomy.